The Makers of Science, VII

The Makers of Science By Dr. John A. Widtsoe, President of the University of Utah

—Antoine Laurent Lavoisier VII About one hundred and fifty years ago, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, discoveries were made and conclusions reached that really marked the begining of modern scien- so happened that the laying of safe foundations tific activity. It for the science of chemistry made possible the impetus that was given to the advancement of all natural and physical sciences. The birth of modern chemistry is therefore of peculiar interest to us, who live in the greatest scientific age. Naturally, many men were concerned in the discoveries upon which science rests; but some more than others had the good fortune to appear at the moment when the time was ripe for the establishment of the great generalizations that make clear the path of future progress. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, who appeared at a time when many recent discoveries had prepared the minds of students for new views, by the assiduous use of a remarkable intelligence became the great master, almost the founder, of modern chemistry. Lavoisier was born at Paris, France, August 16, 1743, the son of a wealthy and illustrious family. He received the best education of the day, and, under great masters, studied mathematics, astronomy, botany and chemistry. He decided to devote himself to the advancement of science, and early in his life gave himself over to chemical studies. In his home, near Paris, he established a laboratory, fitted with costly apparatus, and there at great expense conducted long, time-consuming experiments having for their purpose the development of chemical science. His wealth and high station in life made it easy for him to communicate with the great men of his day. Few students of science have been blessed with such material advantages as surrounded Lavoisier. As he grew in fame and achievements he became the intellectual giant of France. At the time Lavoisier worked there were many facts of chemistry, but no coherent philosophy to make it easy to understand and to use the facts of chemistry. Many absurd notions held sway, as for instance, that water when boiled is converted into a gas so "elastic" as to pass through the pores of glass or iron vessels. Lavoisier showed by a long series of elaborate ex-

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periments that this conception was false, and that water is converted into steam which may easily be condensed without loss into water again. It was Lavoisier, also, who showed that a diamond is composed of carbon. With a great glass lens he succeeded in burning many diamonds and demonstrating that the products of the combustion were the same as from the combustion of charcoal. In fact, it was his theory of combustion that laid the first solid basis for a science of chemistry. For centuries, combustion, or the burning of things, had been the subject of study from scientific men. At the time of Lavoisier the so-called phlogiston theory held full sway. It was believed that in all combustible substances there is imprisoned a subtile gas called phlogiston. When a subtsance burned, it simply meant that the phlogiston was escaping; in fact, fire and flame were the phlogiston. This doctrine which was accepted by all scientists of that day, not only was false, as we know, but was of a character to make nature mysterious, when her very essence is to reveal herself to man. Lavoisier undertook the study of the combustion or calcination of metals. By the use of careful, quantitative methods of study, he found that burned metals weighed more than before burning. He futher found that in the process of burning something is taken from the air, which by appropriate means he could separate from the metal again. This was in every way in opposition to the phlogiston theory. These experiments revolutionized chemical theory, and showed the importance of the use of the balance and other sensitive instruments of measurements in the study of nature's laws. This work, done in 1771, marked the birth of modern chemistry and largely the beginning of modern science. Combustion, as is well known today, is merely the combination of the gas oxygen found in the air with the burning substance. Whether the combinations between the burning substance and the oxygen go off as gases or remain as ashes depends wholly upon the nature of the substance. These truths, however, had to be drawn out of the darkness by the early scientific workers. In fact, when Lavoisier made these epoch-making discoveries, the gas oxygen was not known. The overthrow of the phlogiston theory of combustion, overthrew also a lot of superstitious nonsense about nature. It became clearer than before that to man is given the power, though by slow degrees, to know the heart of nature, and to govern natural phenomena. Much other valuable work was done by Lavoisier before he came to his untimely end.

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From early manhood he had been connected with the tax system of France. When the French revolution broke out thousands of the wisest and the best of French men and women were made to suffer death under the fury of the human chaos of the land. Lavoisier was not forgotten. In a thousand ways he had served his country and added to its wealth, in addition to serving nobly the cause of scientific truth. His fortune had been spent for his country's good. All that was laid aside. It was remembered only that he came of the wealthy class, and that he was part of the tax organization of the land. The judge declared that, "The republic has no need of science." Neither was God held necessary in those days. Lavoisier, the founder of modern chemistry, was guillotined at Paris, May 8, 1794, in the 51st year of his life.