A Summary of European Diplomacy

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SUMMARY OF EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY, BY DR. JOSEPH M. TANNER. Great Britain. At the opening of the year 1907 there are perhaps more questions of far-reaching significance to the peace and prosperity of Europe than at the beginning of any other year for the past century. In the first place, there is a struggle for alliances among the European powers, which clearly indicates some expectation of a great European war. From this side of the Atlantic, Great Britain naturally takes a leading place in the interest manifested by the American people. There is some indication today that before long Great Britain may enter a great struggle for a change in the constitutional govern- ment of that country. At the recent election of parliament, the Liberals went into power by an overwhelming majority, and they represent the popular feelings in the government of the empire. This party proceeded ft once to pass certain laws which repre- sented the popular will as expressed at the ballot. The school question has been a burning question in England for many years. The Conservatives, or Union party, when in , power had enacted laws providing for religious instruction in the public schools by the established church of ..England. Religious instructions are there- fore given under the provisions of the law and at the expense of the government. The Liberals proceeded forthwith to repeal this law in the House of Commons, and sent it to the House of Lords for its ap- proval, and now the House of Lords is overwhelmingly Conserva- tive ii its political composition. It is said that at least three

fourths of this House is made up of the Conservative party. As

A SUMMARY OF EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 291 all laws have to be approved by this hereditary body, it is quite natural that the Liberals should be at a great disadvantage; and this proved to be the case when the education bill was vetoed by the Lords. The Liberal party has therefore the alternative of submission to the veto of the House of Lords or an appeal by the dissolution of parliament to the voters of Great Britain. If re- elected to office by a majority, the Liberals might proceed at once to pass again the education bill, and submit it a second time to the House of Lords- If the House of Lords again refuses to pass the bill, the House of Commons might declare the opposition of the House of Lords to be in defiance of the will of the people of Great Britain, and that henceforth the consent of the House of Lords in matters of legislation was not necessary to constitutional govern- ment of the English people. This would be in effect the dissolu- tion of that hereditary body. It is, of course, quite likely that if the educational question were made a plain and direct issue before the people, in an election, the House of Lords would yield to the mandate of the people, and thus preserve its existence rather than to take chances. The Liberal party has not proceeded,'to a test, and will prob- ably try the House of Lords on a measure of home rule for Ireland —a measure of legislation which the House of Lords would be quite likely also to veto. Other differences may also arise be- tween the Lords and the Houie of Commons, and thus the Liberals, in a dissolution of parliament, would have a number of issues on which to go before the people, and thus create a strong sentiment against the existence of the upper house of parliament, a sentiment that might result in the downfall of the House of Lords. With respect to its foreign policy. Great Britain has made a wonderful change in her time-honored policy of "splendid isola- tion." Great Britain in past decades has considered her opportu- nities to take advantage of differences between European powers more valuable while standing aloof; and this has been largely the case, for England has profited by the wars of other nations without having herself to take any part in them. But new conditions have arisen, and the British have shown themselves, after all, the fore- most statesmen of Europe. For a long time England's leaders have seen the folly of con-

292 IMPROVEMENT ERA. tinuing traditional differences with France. The English clearly foresaw in Germany a menace to the stability and even the exsitence of the governments of Holland and Belsjium. A large part of Germany's commerce and wealth is along the prov- inces of the Rhine. Germany greatly needs an outlet through the Rhine to the sea, and would therefore like to control Rotterdam and Ant^erp. England alone, or France alone, would be unable to withstand German aggression in the direction of these two small kingdoms of western Europe. Both England and France would consider the absorption of either or both of these small kingdoms into the German empire as a most undesirable change in the balance of power in Europe—a change that would be intolerable. Holland wouM be made to turn over its thif ty-eight million people which now belong to the colonies of that country. Great Britain felt, therefore, that it could very well afford to give France a free hand in Morocco, and thereby wipe out the differences between France and Great Britain with respect to Egypt, and at the same time form an alliance that would insure the stability of both Belgium and Holland. The Russians, since the alliance between Great Britain and Japan, realize the uselessness of an aggressive policy towards Great Britain in the direction of the Indian empire. The Enjilish and the Russians find it possible to adjust the differences with respect to Persia and Turkey, two countries in which the Germans are gaining commercial control. This cordial understanding between Great Britain and France, and the alliance between the former country and Japan, will make the English people much more in- different to the sympathy and support of the United States. An alliance of Great Britain with France and Japan would give these countries a mastery over the seas of the world, and the control of all foreign territories whose submission depends upon the naval power of the country to which the territories belong. France. At the time of the French Revolution, the Catholic church owned a large proportion of the richest lands in France, and many of the bonds of the French government. These lands and bonds were confiscated, as well as the cathedrals and other buildings be-

A SUMMARY OF EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 293 longing to the Roman church. Later on, the French government, in order to mitigate these drastic measures, entered into an agree- ment with the Catholic church at Rome, to pay, in lieu of these lands and churches, certain stipends to the clergy. This agreement was stybd the concordat. Something like eight million dollars a year has ever since been paid out to the clergy, chiefly the Cath- olic. Of late years, the Catholic clergy of France have taken an active part in the politics of the republic. This political activity gave rise to a strong opposition against the interference in politics by the cler'3:y. Then the struggle between the church and the state was greatly hastened by the refusal of the Pope to receive in auuience at the Vatican, Mr. Loubet, president of the French republic. The king of Italy had visited France, and the president of the French republic was to return the compliment, and France, being a Catholic country, the president announced his intention also of paying a visit to the Pope while at Rome. As the king of Italy is under the ban of the church, presidents of Catholic countries are not permitted, without the approval of the Pope, to pay the king a visit, or show him other distinguished marks of friendship. The opposition of the French people became so pronounced against the policy of the Pope of Rome, that a separation be- tween the church and state at once began. The French finally enacted a law, known as the association's law, by which hereafter all public worship in France must be held subject to associations under the civil law. The law also provided that hereafter all the clergy ordained to office should receive nothing by way of income from the state. Those priests already receiving annual dues were to continue to receive their annual stipend from the state. The Pope retaliated by refusing his assent to the formation of associ- ations under the civil law for the conduct of worship. As the cathedrals and other churches were the property of the state, their further use could be had only by compliance with the terms of the civil law. The state has avoided all harshness in the exe- cution of this law, and yielded much to the sensibilities of the What the final outcome is to be between the state and the church in France is a matter of supreme interest to an on-looking

294 IMPROVEMENT ERA. world. France is evidently determined that the separation shall take place; that hereafter the church of Rome shall support its own ministry as fast as it is ordained to office. The Pope of Rome and his advisers evidently hope to create such a feeling among the electors of France as to change the present policy of the French government. It is a great struggle between ecclesias- tical and civil power that all the world is watching with intense interest. Germany. Germany is having unusual difficulties in marshalling the nu- merous factions that make up the Reichstag. In that country there is no such party government as exists in the United States and in Great Britain, and legislative matters are generally intro- duced by the government, that is, the executive department, so that when a question arises whether an important bill should be passed or not, it very frequently happens that it is an issue be- tween the prime minister directly and the kaiser indirectly, with the Reichstag. Such an issue has just been decided by an appeal to the popular vote. The Reichstag had refused to pass the appropriation called for the prosecution of the war against the Hereros in southwest Africa. Germany is already beginning to feel the heavy burden of its national debt, which has been in- creased over six hundred millions during Von Buelow's administra- tion. Although last spring an increase of forty-five millions was put upon the taxpayers, there will still be a deficit in carrying out the military program and the ambitions for a large navy by the emperor. There has been for years in Germany a strong feeling against taking so many able-bodied young men from the ranks of indus- trial life to serve in the array; and the military burden upon Ger- mans is one of enormous proportions. The government has, how- ever, been very successful in getting money out of the Reichstag. About so often, the g wernment manages by one means or another to create excitement throughout the empire over the prospects of a war, and thus mold public sentiment in favor of increased military budgets. The contention a little more than a year ago between Fr ance and Germany over the Moroccan affairs had directly minor

A SUMMARY OF EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 296 importance, so far as Morocco was concerned, but a major impor- tance in stimulating a public sentiment in favor of the policy out- lined by Germany's war lord. The German Reichstag has, there- fore, been whipped into subr^ission by these regular national ex- citement.^ over the prospects of war. Another peculiarity which developed itself by the late disso- lution of the Reichstag, was the fact that the Catholic wing, the ultramontanes, or clericals, voted against the government. For some years past the government has been exceptionally partial to the Catholics in matters of appointments and of assuming the role of protector in matters affecting the Catholic church in foreign lands. To the government, the refusal of the Catholics to sup- port the policy in south-west Africa must have looked like ingrat- itude. Russia. The February elections in Russia will determine whether the new Douma, which is to meet in March, will be in harmony with the czar and his advisers, or whether it will be like its predecessor, set in its determination to compel the czar and his reactionaries to submit to the principle of ministerial responsibility to the Dou- ma. Already there is rumor of a threat by the prime minister, Stolypin, to dissolve the newly-elected Douma in case it becomes intractable like its predecessor. Meanwhile the terrorists are holding their secret courts, pass- ing sentences of death upon the czar and those obnoxious to the anarchists. Notices are served upon these officials, and at short intervals the world is apprised by telegrams that this or that high official has just been assassinated. It hardly seems likely that Russia can now recede from the step taken in favor of a constitu- tional government, and the existence of a parliament whose ap- proval shall be necessary to the promulgation of new laws. Salt Lake City, Utah.