Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford

BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. BY DR. JOHN A. WIDTSOE, DIRECTOR EXPERIMENT STATION, STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, LOGAN, UTAH. In our eminently practical age, men are prone to give little heed to the lives of the patient searchers after truth, whose labors lie at the foundation of the progress of the world. This is not done from lack of appreciation of earnest effort, but rather be- cause few, beside the specialist, can follow the devious paths that usually lead him to a discovery of truth. Then, too, a new dis- covery does not always benefit mankind directly, but is left as a bit of knowledge that may be used by some later searcher, in the pro- duction of something that will be useful to men. The world ap- preciates most the finished product; the raw materials are forgot- ten by all, save those whose business it is to supply the demand for the product, ready for human use. The telephone is a most useful invention, by which mankind is benefited to an almost immeasurable extent. To the inventors of the telephone, speakers and writers frequently refer in terms of highest praise, for the service that they have rendered mankind. Yet, a great number of men spent the best portions of their lives in bringing out the principles of science, the knowledge of which made the invention of the telephone possible. In fact, the inven- tion of the telephone was very little more than the wise applica- tion of truths, already known. The men who made the application possible received little honor, and are remembered mainly by the few workers in science. It often occurs that men arise, whose inclination leads them into the study of nature, irrespective of any benefit that the world

186 IMPROVEMENT ERA. may derive from their studies. Such are the men who give their lives to the study of a single group of insects or of flowers, or who spend long nights and days pondering over the story of one star, or who, amidst the fumes of the laboratory, devote their lives to the preparation and study of new chemical compounds that re- main to the mass of men mere scientific curiosities. These per- sons are often derided for their impractical natures; they are called visionaries and men with children's work; and it has hap- pened that they have gone to their graves in poverty, and with their neighbor's contempt heaped upon them. Seldom have they received honor while alive. Yet, the work done by these men has, alone, made possible the great inventions of the last century; with- out the students of pure science, the wonderful, recent progress of the arts and manufactures, would never have taken place. It is true that once in a while, when the history of the development of a great discovery is discussed, the foundation-makers are men- tioned and praised. But, they are soon forgotten again. It is as well, perhaps, that individuals should be forgotten, if the lessons of their lives be remembered; and this is the lesson that the lives of the quiet men who have developed the principles of science teach, that the world should honor, cherish, and care for those whose natural gifts incline them to the study of any portion of nature, apart from any practical end. Who knows what natural laws are yet hidden from men? Who knows what tomorrow will bring? Who could foresee, when a German physicist spent a busy life investigating an abstruse and theoretical branch of electricity, that one of the first results of his labors would be the X-rays, with their wide and useful applications? The scientist himself did not suspect it, but worked away in the love of truth, hoping that good would eventually come of his efforts. All honor to the unselfish, pure-minded delvers into nature's mysteries. Let us praise them; not scorn them. The foregoing paragraphs do not at all intend to detract from the fame of the earnest men who have applied the discoveries of others to the needs and comforts of mankind. To them may much honor be given. But, since the' main purpose of this article is to draw attention to the life of a man who nearly always had in mind the useful application of a new principle, a word has been said in

" BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. 187 remembrance of those who confined their work to the study of pure science. Benjamin Thompson, later Count Rumf ord, was born March 26, 1753, in the town of Woburn, Massachusetts. His father, who belonged to a family of moderately wealthy farmers, died in Benjamin's infancy. His mother married soon after, but gave great care to the training of her son. His early boyhood gave the promise of usefulness which his later life so amply fulfilled. In his studies he excelled; so much so, that it is recorded that, at the age of fourteen, his knowledge of mathematics was sufficient to enable him to calculate a solar eclipse. When he was about fif- teen years old he was apprenticed to a storekeeper, for a com- mercial career had been decided upon for him. During his appren- ticeship he carried on all sorts of experiments in physics and chemistry, and in that way gained a valuable acquaintance with the principles of these sciences. During the early years, of his appren- ticeship he also studied and practiced engraving; and it is said that he became very expert in the art. These various occupations of the boy go to show the active mind of which he was possessed; and his industry is a lesson to any young man who, perhaps, wastes his time in some idle pursuit that will benefit none. While he was yet a boy, the political troubles of the Ameri- can colonies led to the first outbreaks of the Revolution. The business of the storekeeper to whom Benjamin Thompson was ap- prenticed, became so affected by the war that the young man was compelled to seek employment elsewhere. At eighteen, he went to Boston where he engaged himself to another storekeeper. Across the river Charles, from Boston, lies the city of Cambridge, with its famous Harvard University. Naturally enough, Benjamin Thompson was drawn irresistibly to this place, and, during his stay in Boston, he frequented the lectures on physics and other subjects given in Harvard College. It is related that, after each lecture, he would repeat in his own room, as best he could, the experiments performed by the lecturer. In this manner did his store of scien- tific knowledge grow. Some of his biographers affirm, that at this time he took up the study of medicine also. The details of his life at this time are not known. At the age of nineteen he married, or as he says in his memoirs, he was

188 IMPROVEMENT ERA. married to a Mrs. Rolf e, a widow who was fourteen years his senior. Through the influence of his wife, probably, Governor Wentworth made him major of one of the many regiments that were being organized at that time. His youth excited the jealousy of his sub- ordinate officers, who were older men, which resulted finally in his being relieved of his commission. He then offered his services to George Washington, but in this case, also, the jealousy that had arisen against him, prevented him from obtaining a commission. It is likely that, with his keen temperament he had made enemies, and that in part he, himself, was responsible for the ill-feeling against him. In those days feelings ran high, and many charges were made against most men. Benjamin Thompson was charged by someone with being opposed to the colonies, and as a result he was placed in considerable danger. To get him out of harm's way, his friends succeeded in having him appointed, in 1776, to fill a political mission in England. With his journey came a change that affected his whole later life. In London, his great genius and unusual attainments immedi- ately secured him the attention of many powerful people. Among them was Lord Germaine, at that time secretary of state, who ap- pointed him to a clerkship in the war department. In his character- istic way, he immediately began to apply the principles of science to the problems of the department in which he worked. He studied the preparation of gunpowder, and made many improvements in its manufacture and use; he then gave his attention to firearms, and bettered them greatly ; following this investigation he took up and simplified the question of signalling at sea, and, to gather the neces- sary information, he made one or more cruises at sea. Of such high grade were his researches in these directions that in 1779, when he was just past twenty-five years of age, he was elected a member of the Royal Society, one of the select associations of scientific men upon the earth. The English government also ap- preciated his services so much that, four years after his arrival in England, he was made undersecretary of state. At this time, when Benjamin Thompson seemed destined for a life of English government service, an event occurred which changed his life materially. The administration, under which he

BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. 189 was serving, fell, and he fell with it; the incoming cabinet either did not want his services, or he preferred not to serve it. He was then given a cavalry command in America, and for a few months was supposed to oppose his countrymen. However, the war was over, and the active life which his nature demanded, was not to be found in America. He, therefore, returned to Europe, and immediately set out for Austria where he had heard that war was being waged. Through the mediation of friends, he met, on this journey, Maxi- milian, Elector of Bavaria, and was invited to enter the civil and military service of that kingdom. This offer was accepted, and King George HI of England, in giving his consent, conferred the honor of knighthood upon the brilliant American. The government of Bavaria was at that time in a precarious condition. Discontent within and jealousy without had so en- dangered the stability of the government that it seemed near de- struction. The problem before the elector was to make his people love him, and as a result support him in his position. To the ac- complishment of this task did Benjamin Thompson set all his en- deavors. As a wise man would do, he first inquired into the causes of discontent in the Bavarian kingdom. He found that the sol- diers of the state were dissatisfied, because they lacked many of the ordinary comforts of life, and felt that their obligatory service rendered them nothing in return. After reflecting upon the matter, he came to a conclusion which he later states as follows: "Order and disorder, peace and war, health and sickness, can not exist to- gether; but comfort and contentment, the inseparable companions of virtue, can only arise from order, peace and health." In ac- cordance with this principle, he immediately began to improve the conditions of the military forces. Their dwelling places were made more pleasant; they were furnished good and warm clothes; their routine duties were lightened, and each soldier was given a piece of garden ground, three hundred and sixty-five square feet in area, which he was required to care for. In this manner the duties of the soldiers while in garrison were lightened and made more varied; and in a short time the spirit of the army became one of loyality and interest in the welfare of the country. The unfortunate conditions in Bavaria had led to great pov- erty among the people, and vast numbers of beggars were found

190 IMPROVEMENT ERA. in every town. Thefts, murders and crimes of every kind resulted from the existence of these masses of idle men and women, tramp-' ing through the country from place to place. Sir Benjamin Thompson instructed the military force to arrest all such persons, to take them to houses already prepared, where they were kept comfortable and set to work in various ways. For the work that they did, they were paid according to the quantity and quality of the product. In one day, it is said, 2600 beggars were arrested and set to work. This, in a short time, reduced the vagrant nuis- ance so much that it was no longer a public menace. The existence of beggars implied poverty among the people, and the eradication of the cause of this poverty was Thompson's next aim. Upon investigation he found that most persons in the country who were willing to work could earn something towards their subsistence, but that, in many cases, it was insufficient for all their needs. The question was, then, how to make the small in- comes of the poorer classes go farther than before. The main ex- pense of the people was for heat and food; and the economy of heating and eating became Sir Benjamin's study. Besides, the feeding of the numerous beggars imprisoned by his orders involved a considerable expense to the state, and thus he had another pur- pose in studying the most economical ways in which a man can be well fed. It was found at the outset that there was a great waste of fuel throughout the whole country. The open fireplaces and crude stoves then in use were found to- consume many times as much fuel as was necessary to warm the rooms. The same criticism may be offered on many modern fireplaces — too much of the heat goes out of the chimney. The kitchen fireplaces were found equally wasteful, and what was worse, not suited for purposes of cooking food in the best manner. New warming and cooking stoves were then devised, which would conserve the heat obtained from the fuel — in fact, the modern rational stove owes much of its existence to the labors of this American-English- Bavarian genius. One of his ovens for the proper cooking of food is worthy of especial mention. It was simply an iron box surrounded by a brick casing, with an air space between. In this box, the food was placed, the door tightly closed, and the box then heated from

BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. 191 below by any convenient source of heat, the heated air from which completely surrounded the box. In this manner nearly all the heat that entered the box was retained there, and the food was cooked slowly at a gentle heat. The immense economy of fuel by such rational methods may be understood by quoting one of Thompson's results. At a time when a cord of soft wood [cost 'about $1.75, the fuel necessary to prepare dinner for one thousand persons cost about ten cents. Not only did improved fireplaces and ovens lead to an economy of fuel, but the quality of food cooked in the Rum- ford Roaster, was so much higher as regards flavor and digest- ibility, that this fact alone made it an invention of first importance to mankind.' In recent years, Mr. Edward Atkinson of Boston has invented an oven based on the same principle, but heated by a lamp, which oven, were we all as progressive as we should be, would be found in many homes in America. These studies of the economy of fuel, and the betterment of kitchen furnaces, necessarily led Sir Thompson into deeper studies concerning the relative values of different foods, and of the influence that cooking has upon these values. One of his impor- tant observations was that good food, by improper cooking may be made quite unfit for human use; and that on the other hand, such portions of meats and vegetables as we commonly look upon as very indigestible, may be made fit for the most delicate stomachs by the proper application of gentle heat in the process of cooking. He applied many of his discoveries to the feeding of the small army of beggars that he had collected. To feed them, he made what is known as the Rumf ord soups, which, for the daily diet of 1200 persons, consisted of 141 lbs. 2oz. pearl barley; 131 lbs, 4 oz. peas; 69 lbs. 10 oz. wheaten bread; 19 lbs., 13 oz. salt; 46 lbs., 13 oz., sour beer or vinegar, and 1,077 lbs. of water. This mixture was cooked over a slow fire for several hours, and formed a most nutritious and satisfying diet. Including the fuel, labor of cooking and caring for the kitchen, and repairs of the utensils, the total daily cost, at the prices then prevailing in Bavaria, was something less than $8.00, or a trifle more than 6| cents per day for each person fed. Under American conditions, the cost would be somewhat higher, since labor is more expensive here than it is

192 IMPROVEMENT ERA. in Europe, but the total difference would be small. Even today in many of the large cities of Europe are found the Rumf ord kitchens, in which a good portion of Rumford soup is handed out for a few cents, and in American cities, of late, have similar kitchens been established. It is interesting to observe that this famous soup, on which working men have subsisted for long periods, contains, solely, products of the vegetable kingdom — in fact, Benjamin Thompson proved that by proper cooking vegetables may be made quite as nutritious as are meats. It is impossible to discuss here the great service that Count Rumford as he was called after being created a count by the holy Roman empire rendered the world by his studies of methods of cooking; it must be sufficient to say that many thinking men consider him one of the great benefactors of mankind. During his researches, he introduced to the people of Europe the potato and Indian corn as excellent foods. He invented many of the ordinary appliances used in the kitchen, as for instance, the common, closed cook stove, and the double boiler, now so commonly used to prevent burning of food during a slow cooking. He gave much attention to house decoration, to clothing, and furnished the ladies with scientific reasons why some colors in dress harmonize and others do not. Agriculture was not forgotten, for he took a large tract of worn out land, and by judicious methods of tillage made it fertile again; he also improved the livestock of Bavaria by infusing into it the blood of improved breeds of cattle. By this work the general conditions of the country were greatly improved, and he was held as one of the great benefactors of the land. It must not be thought that Rumford's work was wholly con- fined to studies that would have immediate practical application. He was one of the first to show that mechanical energy can pro- duce heat energy. His experiment on this matter consisted in boring a cannon, and causing water to boil by the heat generated by the work. This principle, in recent days, has become a corner stone of physical science. He experimented largely with heat and devised excellent instruments for measuring the amount of heat given out or taken up in different operations. He invented, also, while studying light, a well-known instrument for determining the intensity of light from any given source. His active mind reached

' BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. 193 into many fields and wherever he worked, he reaped a rich harvest. After he had served Bavaria for eleven years, the turmoil in- cident to the French Revolution, made his remaining in Munich undesirable, and he left for England, where he founded the now famous Royal Institution, at which popular lectures on scientific subjects are still given. After a brief stay in England he finally settled near Paris, France, where he married the widow of the great Father of Modern Chemistry, Lavoisier. Here, for some years he continued his researches, and prepared his discoveries for proper publication. One of the acts of his later life was to found at Harvard College, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, a professorship for the discussion of the application of science to the useful arts, a chair which still exists under the name of the Rumf ord profes- sorship. He also made a liberal donation to the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences, the income of which, for nearly a hun- dred years, has been used to aid those whose lives are given to advancing science. After a most honorable and useful life he died, in his sixty- first year, in 1814. It may not be necessary, I trust, to dwell at length upon one of the great lessons that may be drawn from the life of Count Rumf ord; that the greatest mind may not be above devoting its best efforts to the study of the "common things" of "common life;" and that the uplifting of the human race is after all the aim of the truth-seeker. Many a young man of our days feels that to be truly great he must deal only with the far-away facts and objects of the world. Let such a one keep in strict rememberance the gifted investi- gator. Count Rumf ord, who was content to spend the better por- tion of a score of years in a kitchen, studying with the greatest care the best and most enconomical methods of boiling, frying, roasting and baking; and who by his work made our every meal more enjoyable, and our lives happier. Count Rumf ord's purpose in life may best be stated in his own words, "It has ever been mv most ardent wish to be of some use to mankind, to be able to flatter myself, when I am going out of the world, that I have lived to some useful purpose," Well was Ms ambition realized.