Some Developments in Modern Chemistry. I

120 IMPR( >VEMENT era pounds that we have today, BUCh as the alums, green vitriol, saltpetre, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid. According to Geber, the difference between the nobler and the baser metals was simply in the relative proportion of mercury and sulphur contained in each. As we approach the nobler metals, such as gold and silver, there is a higher content of mercury, while in the baser metals, such as copper, there is a higher proportion of sulphur. Tn the thirteenth century, the transmutation of the baser into the nobler metals was an accepted fact of the scientific world at that time. There was some evidence which appeared to confirm them in this contention. For example, it was noted that if a piece of iron be allowed to stand in a solution of copper sulphate for a certain length of time, the iron was converted into copper. Of course, we know now that this was due simply to the electrolytic deposition of copper upon the piece of iron. About this time, a very systematic and intense search was being made for the so-called "philosopher's stone." The "philosopher's stone" was assumed to be endowed with great virtue. It was the one thing that was lacking which was necessary to convert the baser into the nobler metals, and, furthermore, by means of it the scientists, so-called, believed that they would be able to isolate the "elixir of life," a few drops of which would convert an old person into a young one, and the person taking the medicine would be endowed with perpetual youth. At this time, many apparently authentic stories were in circulation regarding persons who had in some mysterious way been enabled to get hold of a little of this "elixir of life" and had old age fall from them like a mantle. It was about this time, or shortly after, that America was discovered, and that many expeditions were sent out to this country for the purpose of seeking the "philosophers' stone" and the spring of "eternal life." Very little real progress could be made in chemistry until the present so-called chemical elements were discovered. It was along in the latter part of the eighteenth century that some few of the chemical elements were being brought to light. It was only by the researches of such men as Cavendish and Lavoisier that the true nature of the simple process of combustion was determined. Prior to the work of these investigators, it was believed that when a substance underwent the process of combustion that it lost some

DEVELOPMENTS IN MODERN CHEMISTRY 121 material, such as "phlogistine," a substance that had the peculiar property of not only not having any weight, but having a negative weight, and therefore a substance which had undergone combustion or burning, possessed more weight than did the original substance. This is known as the old "Phlogistine theory" of combustion. With the introduction of the analytical balance and its use in chemistry it was readily determined that when a substance underwent combustion there was an increase in weight of the products of combustion, that is, the products of combustion weighed more than did the original substance. Thus indicating clearly that there was a union of some substance, presumably contained in the air, with some other substances, and we are thus enabled to determine that the process of combustion really means the union of the elements of the substance with the oxygen of the atmosphere. With this discovery rapid strides were made in the advancement of chemistry, and the chemist began to concern himself less and less with the transmutation of the elements and the pursuit of the "elixir of life," — although, incidentally it should be noted that the feminine world of today is indebted to the chemist for the production of many cosmetics that are now placed on the market, the users of which are vainly attempting to eliminate the "crowfeet" of time, and incidentally they are still seeking the springs of "eternal youth." The chemist of today, however, is concerning himself more and more with the development of the researches in practical life. There are a great many material advantages to be derived from the intelligent application of chemical research. One hundred and fifty years ago, or thereabouts, we knew only four chemical elements, as already noted. Since that time, a great many elementary substances have been discovered, until at the present time we have something between 80 and 90 known chemical elements. Incidentally, it may be noted that one of the most important of these and certainly one of the most interesting, radium, was recently discovered by a woman, Madam Curie, in France. Since the discovery of this substance, possessing the properties of radio-activity, we have discovered a number of other interesting radio-active compounds. Professor Hahn of the University of Berlin recently discovered radio-active compound by the name of thorum, while

122 IMPROVEMENT ERA working with the by-product obtained in the manufacture of the Thoruni lamp. A few years ago it was thought that the domain of inorganic chemistry was a closed field ; that we knew all that there was to be known regarding the inorganic substances ; but the recent development of the process whereby we can secure exceptionally high temperatures and also extremely low temperatures, has opened up new fields that were undreamed of a few years ago. By the liquefaction of hydrogen extremely low temperatures, 253 degrees below zero, have been obtained. This is within 20 degrees of "absolute" zero, a point at which, theoretically, all matter is in a state of rest. By the attainment of such high temperatures as we can achieve in the electric arc, such as 3,000 above zero, many chemical reactions can be caused to take place. For example, a Frenchman by the name of Moissan, has shown that with such extremely high temperatures and the use of great pressure, artificial diamonds can be prepared out of the element carbon. Briefly, in this- process. the carbon is obtained in a molten mass of iron which is suddenly plunged into cold water and the resulting cooling of the iron forces the interior containing the carbon under great pressure, and as a result there is the production of the carbon in a crystalline form which we speak of as the diamond. Incidentally it should be noted that this is not a practical process for the making of diamonds, and is of theoretical interest only, since it would cost approximately $1,000 to make a diamond worth $25 or $30. Again, by the achievement of such extremely high temperatures as we are enabled to attain with the electric arc, we are enabled to cause the union of oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere with the resulting formation of nitric acid. We thus have within our power, the artificial preparation of one of the most important, and at any rate the most costly, of plant foods. The atmosphere consists of four-fifths of nitrogen and one-fifth, approximately, of oxygen. The nitrogen, however, is in the free or elementary form, and as such is unavailable to plant growth. There is in the atmosphere over every acre of soil enough nitrogen to last for the maximum production of crops such as corn for something like seven hundred thousand years. That is, the supply is absolutely inexhaustible, and yet, notwithstanding this fact, the supply of nitrogen in the combined form in the soil is very limited, and the lack of nitrogen in many soils is the limiting factor of crop

DEVELOPMENTS IN MODERN CHEMISTRY 123 production. Therefore, any process which will take this elementary nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert it into a form which can be utilized by the plants is of immense practical significance. In these days of the high cost of living which apparently has no upper limit, it is of great importance to all to consider ways and means by which the cost of living may be reduced. This question of the high cost of living has been and is being studied from a good many different angles. Some economists believe that the high cost of living is a direct result of the increased supply of gold and therefore the purchasing power of gold has been decreased. Senator Burton of Ohio believes that the direct high cost of living is due to the fact that we as a people are becoming more lazy and that our desires are becoming greater. Whatever may be the true cause, probably the summation of a great number of different factors, it cannot fail to be of great interest for us to consider ways and means by which the total supply of food may be increased. There are only four countries in the world that are at all comparable with the United States in size and population, and those countries are India, China, and Russia. And there is scarcely a year passes or scarcely a month of the year when from one or the other of these countries there is not sent out a great call for help for the people who are dying of famine. The condition in which the other three countries of the world that are comparable in size with this country should be of great significance to the people of this section. Did you ever stop to think of what the discovery of the new world, America, meant to the people of Europe ? Why is it that the people of Europe in general are not in the same condition as are the people of India, the people of China, and the people of Russia? It is largely due to the fact that the discovery of the new world in 1492, gave an outlet to the increase of population of the world. The increased population of the European section of the world is being taken care of largely in North and South America, and in addition the food products obtained from the new and virgin section of the world are being shipped in enormous quantities to supply the people of Europe. These two factors have placed the European nations in the supreme position which they occupy today — but for the United States there are no new worlds to conquer. There are no new worlds

124 IMPROVEMENT ERA to be discovered which will take care of the surplus population of this country, and from which we shall be able to secure our food supply. The only world that remains for us to discover in this connection is to learn how we can get more out of our soil than we are now getting, and one of the most important steps that can be taken for the accomplishment of this purpose is the conversion of this free, or elementary, nitrogen of the atmosphere into the combined form which can be used by agricultural plants. By the utilization of this combined form of nitrogen, the crop-producing power of the soil in many sections of the country may be increased three-fold over what it now is. The importance of this chemical process, then, the union of the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere by means of high temperatures in the electric arc, is farreaching. In addition, by means of great temperatures, we are enabled to prepare now on a large scale artificial ammonia. That is, the nitrogen of the atmosphere and hydrogen may be caused to unite together for the production of ammonia! The success of this operation has been limited by the supply of the elementary hydrogen, but the wonderful development of the past few years in the perfection of the air machines, flying machines, and balloons, have led to the development of an abundant supply of hydrogen, so there is nothing now in the way of the cheap and abundant production of artificial ammonia. Factories are now being established in Germany and in Norway for the combination of nitrogen into these two forms which mean so much to the agriculture of the world. (to be concluded in the next number) 1-ELLING THE MONARCH T

he Open Road BY JOHN HENRY EVANS, OF THE LATTER-DAY SAINTS' UNIVERSITY Stage XVI — In Which is told how a Certain Conversation Becomes Dreadfully Mixed Up with Certain Household Duties Preparing bread for the oven is not, I am afraid, the most dignified bit of work in the world. Neither is washing the breakfast dishes. Yet, as our Christian civilization goes, both are exceedingly necessary. Also they are useful. For when one woman mixes the bread, and another washes the dishes, both operations being performed at the same time, and in the same room, you do not require to be told that there is more or less (rather more than less) conversation going on. Not that the work takes really longer to do than if there were only one woman. This last is as difficult an arithmetical problem as if the persons involved were boys. But that is neither here nor there. Indeed, when you are further informed that the bread-mixer is an elderly woman and the dish-washer a pretty girl engaged to marry a young man well known to the elderly person, you can easily guess what is the subject of their dialogue. But should I tell you that the elderly person in this case was Mrs. Bernstein and the other Bessie Ward, and then ask you what they were talking about, nine to one you would answer, "Brocketts, to be sure !" And you would be right in the conjecture. But what is Bessie doing at Mrs. Bernstein's ? Well, if you must know, the Wards — the family to which Bessie belongs — happen to live on the same street as the Bernstein's. Always they have been friends, and Bessie has been running in and out of the Bernstein home ever since she could run at all. Besides, if I must set down the whole truth, she has been running in and out there (faster in than out) oftener lately than ever before. For one thing, Mrs. Bernstein was eternally speaking of Brocketts, though she had never said what she did to-day. And for another, Mr. Bernstein was in trouble. "What a wonderful young man that Brocketts of yours is, Bessie !" Mrs. Bernstein exclaimed. She had just taken the dough out of the bread-pan and slapped it down on the table. Bessie was in the act of pouring hot water from the tea-kettle on the dishes. The young girl

126 IMPROVEMENT ERA colored with very pleasure. It was a thousand times sweeter to her ears than the highest praise about hereself could be ! "I declare," the older woman went on as she sprinkled flour on the dough and began to knead it, "I don't believe anybody else could have done what he has with the store — not even Mr. Bernstein himself!" This conversation occured some six months after Brocketts was made manager by Mrs. Bernstein. "It's nice of you to say so, I'm sure," Bessie gratefully returned. "Nothing would please Brocketts better than to know what you think of his services." "Oh, I've told him. You know, he has come here three or four times a week since our trouble, to tell us how he was getting on at the store. I've told him !" "But you haven't made it quite as strong as you did just now." "Well, perhaps not. But he knows, anyhow. Mr. Bernstein thinks as I do." For Mr. Bernstein had been told his loss by now. "He's said to me many a time that he didn't know what he'd have done if it hadn't been for Brocketts. Very likely we'd have been ruined." By this time the bread had been kneaded and was ready for the glittering knife, which Mrs. Bernstein proceeded, with great cruelty, to apply to cutting the white, yielding material into four pieces and then again into two each. The dishes were making less rapid progress, for Bessie just would turn about and face her companion, as if to exibit the better effect the dark blue bib apron she wore. "I'd give the world if I had a boy like Brocketts — or rather," Mrs. Bernstein corrected, "if Brocketts were mine." And then suddenly turning towards Bessie, her hand suspended with knife in the air, "How old is he, do you know?" "Why the fact is, Mrs. Bernstein, he doesn't quite know. He's about—" "Doesn't know, child? How's that, I wonder?" But Bessie evaded the question. Brocketts had sealed her lips on that point, because of what it covered. "He's about twenty three, though," She said endeavoring to hide her slip of the tongue. Poor Mrs. Bernstein's mind was not hard to run off the track on this subject, for it was bent on something more vital to her than Brocketts' age. "He's about the same age as my boy would be if he were alive." "Your boy. Mrs. Bernstein ! I didn't know you ever had a boy." The dishes did not get along at all now for a while, so difficult is it to be astonished and to do work at the same time. "I never talk about him, or rarely," Mrs. Bernstein said — T