--- title: Improvement Era description: Monthly periodical of the Mormon church, 1897 onward. This library holds the issues of November 1897 to December 1930. authors: - Pack, Frederick J. collections: - periodicals tags: - magazine - improvement-era periodical: Improvement Era volume: 14 number: 3 published: 1911-01 publisher: Young Men’s Mutual Improvement Associations publisher_place: Salt Lake City language: en type: magazine reference: 'Frederick J. Pack, "The Creation of the Earth," *Improvement Era* 14, no. 3 (January 1911): 220–229.' source: url: https://archive.org/details/improvementera1403unse transcription: Transcribed from the Internet Archive scan of each issue (the item for each issue is named in the issue's own source); unnumbered advertising leaves are omitted, printed page numbers are kept as page markers. identifier: improvementera1403unse start_page: 220 end_page: 229 rights: status: public-domain basis: US publication 1930 or earlier (published 1911-01) source: https://archive.org/details/improvementera1403unse publication_year: 1911 note: The Internet Archive item metadata carries a blanket "© Copyright by Intellectual Reserve, Inc." notice. The library owner judged it inapplicable because this issue was published in 1911, before 1931; a scan-level notice does not restore copyright. --- # The Creation of the Earth The Creation of the Earth. BY FREDERICK J. PACK, A. M., PH. D., DESERET PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH. III. The Geological Record. But little attempt will be made to explain the methods of interpretation used by the geologist in ascertaining the ages of the various rock formations. Two principles chiefly are used — superposition (the state of being laid one upon another) and fossil content. The geologist recognizes that the rocks comprising the outer part of the earth had their origin through the same agencies and in much the same way as similar deposits are now being formed, i. e., by the deposition of sediments largely in lakes and oceans. It is, of course, apparent that each layer thus formed is younger than the layer upon which it rests. To the geologist this principle reveals the truth that the older rocks occur at the base of the great stratigraphic column, while the successively younger ones are higher up. Our present beaches are strewn with the remains of a diversity of creatures, similar forms of which are living nearby. Many of the land forms, as well as the aquatic, are preserved by being buried in the accumulating sediments. These types represent a part of the life of this particular age, and would at some future time furnish a key as to the nature of the flora and fauna existing at the time that the sediments were laid down. And so it is with the great geologic column — the various types now found in fossil THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 221 condition reveal the nature of the life which characterized the times during which the various rock masses were deposited. Hence, by beginning at the base of the geological column, one may read the chronologic history of the faunal and floral life simply by noting the nature of the fossil content of each succeeding series of rocks. The careful examination of literally thousands of geologic sections at greatly diversified points, reveals, without a single exception, one and the same chronology. Further, each of the greater (and often minor) subdivisions of this column is characterized by a flora and fauna unlike those of other subdivisions. This fact enables the geologist to identify the horizon or age, even though lower (older) or higher (younger) rocks are not exposed at the place of observation. Primarily, by the application of these principlesof superposition and fossil content, the geologist has worked out, in considerable detail, the history of the various life forms which have inhabited the earth. But, just as in profane history, the record becomes more aid more illegible as one reaches back into the distant past. In geology this is the case principally for two reasons: firstly, the animal and plant forms were not so abundant, were less diversified in form, and possessed fewer parts capable of being preserved; and, secondly, the forms that were originally in a good state of preservation have subsequently been more or less destroyed by the processes of time. The geologist carries the history just as far back as authentic records will permit him to go. Through a somewhat close relationship of forms, he is enabled to classify (somewhat arbitrarily at times) the earth's history into various divisions and subdivisions, each of which, of course, is characterized by a fauna and flora of its own. In the following table the division of time is that adopted by the International Geological Congress. The right-hand column is appended to show the characteristic life of each of the major subdivisions: IMPROVEMENT ERA. Psychozoic Quaternary Age of Man Cenozoic Tertiary True mammals appear and become dominant Cretaceous Reptiles dominant, birds abundant Mesozoic Jurassic Reptiles dominant, birds appear Triassic Cycads culminate Permian Amphibians dominant • Carboniferous Acrogens dominant Paleozoic Devonian Fishes dominant Silurian Invertebrates still dominant Ordovician Fishes first appear Cambrian All classes of invertebrates Pre-Cambrian Algonkian Evidences of both animal and plant life Archaean No direct evidences of life The Archaean system does not form a part of the orginal earth-stuff, but may have been derived directly from it. The rocks of this system contain no direct evidences of life through the presence of fossils, yet, from information derived from other sources, it is confidently inferred that organisms in great numbers already existed. In the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river, and in the Belt mountains of Montana, the Algonkian system furnished abundant evidence of life, but the fossils are fragmentary and difficult of exact identification. They belong, however, to the lower forms of life, largely referable to the Crustacea, Brachiopoda, etc. THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 223 The Cambrian period is represented in fossil form by an abundance of animals and some plants. The fossils show that the life was not only widely diversified in form, but well developed in structure. Practically all of the later invertebrates were represented by ancestral types in the life of this age. The geologist does not look upon the Cambrian life as strictly primitive ; he sees back of and beyond it enormous periods of time in which this life had its origin. It should be noted, however, that only the more simple types of animals and plants, as we know them today, had made their appearance by Cambrian times. The Ordovician flora and fauna were slightly advanced over those of the preceding period. The most interesting feature of this age, however, was the appearance of a primitive backboned creature. At Canyon City, Colorado, and elsewhere, the remains of primitive fish occur in strata of the Ordovician age. These early vertebrate forms, however, were by no means abundant, and were not well specialized as were those of later periods. During Silurian times the invertebrate forms were still dominant. The flora and fauna had become slightly more specialized and complex than those of the preceding period. The Devonian was so abundantly represented by aquatic vertebrates, that it has been called the "Age of Fishes." All of the higher Cryptogams (flowerless plants) were represented both by large, treelike forms and smaller plants. Some of the lower forms of the Gymnosperms (flowering plants) were also present. The amphibians, the lowest of air-breathing vertebrates, were also representtd in the Devonian. Some of the plants became extinct during the Carboniferous, while others became more abundant and diversified. The topographic features were such as to offer excellent facilities for the preservation of plant life. It is within this system that practically all of the coal of the eastern United States occurs. The fauna was also materially changed over that of the Devonian. During Permian times the Amphibians greatly increased in numbers and in complexity. The reptiles were also present in great numbers. The Triassic flora was greatly in advance of that in the Carboniferous or Permian. The Amphibians reached their culminat- ing importance, and the reptiles appeared in great numbers of diversified form. The reptiles of the Jurassic period were of a higher and more diversified form than those in the Triassic. The most remarkable feature of this period was the appearance of birds, the oldest type known to science having been found in the lithographic limestones of Bavaria. It may fairly be questioned whether the Cretaceous reptiles were more abundant than those of the Jurassic. Large numbers had disappeared and others had taken their places. The reptiles became the dominant forms of land, sea, and air. Many of the genera were the largest land animals that ever existed. The birds were more abundant and more diversified than those of the Jurassic. Nearly all of the coal of the Rocky mountain region o:curs in the rocks of this system. The opening of the Tertiary was heralded by the appearance of large numbers of true mammals. They soon became greatly diversified in form, size, and habits of living. It was during this period that all of the more common animals, including the horse, cow, deer, bear, elephant, dog, cat, etc., appeared. The close of the Tertiary differed but little with the present time, except in the absence of man. The exact time at which he appeared is still an open question. Some geologists hold the opinion that he may have come in near the close of the Tertiary, while others emphatically assert that he did not appear until well within the early Pleistocene (lower Quaternary). All agree that he is practically the last of the great series to be created. IV. Summary and Conclusion. In the first article of this series it was stated that the Biblical chronology of creation, as outlined in the first chapter of the Book of Genesis, has been vindicated in almost every detail by modern scientific discovery. The second and third articles deal with the principal hypothesis of earth origin and the geological record respectively. Attention will now be directed to the similarity of the facts derived from these three independent sources. It will be noted that the writer has attempted no explanation THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 225 of the length of time involved in the creation of the earth. Nothing has been said of the term "day," as found in the Biblical account. Nothing concerning methods of creation has been attempted. These things have purposely been avoided, not because they present any difficulties, but because we are dealing solely with the matter of chronology. For the present argument, even the identity of the writer of the Book of Genesis matters not. The outcome would be the same, whether the chronology were written by Moses, or by some of the ancient Chaldeans or Babylonians. If it can be shown that the two chronologies agree, then the argument for the divine authenticity of the Biblical account will be established. According to the Biblical account, the first command of the Great Creator was "Let there be light;" and yet it will be remembered that according to the same narrative the sun, moon and stars were not created until the fourth day. This apparant inconsistency in the appearance of light, independent of the celestial luminaries, is converted into a profound truth through the researches of modern science. Physicists and astronomers alike agree that the accretion of nebulous or planetesimal material in the creation of the earth would inevitably generate large quantities of light. In discussing some of the earlier stages in the history of the earth, but with no reference whatever to the Biblical chronology, Professor Chamberlain, of the University of Chicago, states, "There was, however, a terrestrial source of heat and light* of critical importance, namely, that arising from the infall ofplanetesimals." Further, "The planetesimals between the earth and the sun, during the early stages before they were much swept up by the inner planets, may have screened off some appreciable part of the sun's heat and light; but the ratio of nebular matter to space was probably too small to render this loss critical. So long as the nebula itself remained luminous the nebular light compensated, in a greater or less degree, for the solar light cut off, but perhaps not for the heat." (See Chamberlain and Salisbury's Geology, 1906, Vol. II, pp. 113, 114,). This complete agreement of Biblical statement and fact of recent scientific acceptance is * The Italics in the article are mine. most remarkable, especially when it is called to mind that the writer of the Biblical chronology could not have known of the existence of light independant of the celestial luminaries, this being a doctrine only of the most recent times. And in addition to this, it should be remembered that the event is placed in its correct position in the chronology. ../ Through a commandment of Deity, the firmament, or expanse, appeared on the second day. The exact meaning of this statement is not perfectly clear, but it very likely has its counterpart in the scientific chronology in the events which cleared the space surrounding the earth by the infalling of accretion or nebulous material. Before this time the earth had not been an independent sphere, but the materials comprising it had been scattered throughout the solar space, and thus the firmament did not appear until the major part of this planetary material was withdrawn from it. One of the first events readily proved from the geological record is the segregation of the land and water, thus forming the continental areas and the ocean basins. (It should be noted that the scientific evidence thus far presented comes from the cosmogonist, and not from the geologist). In speaking of the early differentiation of land and water, Professor Chamberlain says: "It is not necessary to suppose that there was, at the outset, a general or continuous covering of certain large areas by water, and a general continuance of land in other areas, but merely that over certain portions of the globe water areas were more abundant than over other areas. Where water predominated, it may at first have taken the form of numerous small bodies The tendency would always be toward the more complete unification of the land areas and water areas, respectively. So long as the earth continued to grow appreciably by accession, the water areas should continue to grow larger and deeper, and the land areas narrower and higher After growth cea el, and modern processes became dominant, a more nearly balanced relation of sea and land is thought to have ensued, with a close approximation to constancy" (pp. 109, 110). It is a well accepted fact in geology that the continents, with practically their present outlines, came into existence sometime near the close of the pre-Cambrian. THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 227 According to the Biblical account, the work of the third "day" culminated in the appearance of plants of various kinds, but it asserts that the lower forms of animals appeared on the fifth "day." Geologic history records the appearance of plants and animals contemporaneously. Both the geologist and the biologist, however, see very good reasons for believing that plants were created long before animals. The earliest forms of plants with which we are acquainted were very fragile, and much less susceptible to preservation than were the animal forms possessing harder chitinous,or calcareous parts. From this viewpoint alone it appears probable that plants may have existed long before animals, but because of their delicacy were not preserved. The biologist calls attention to the absolute necessity for the appearance of plants before animals, the latter being incapable of deriving a livelihood directly from mineral matter alone. It will be remembered that plant life is capable of obtaining its food directly from mineral matter, while animal life cannot do this, but must receive at least a part of its food from material previously worked over by plants. For this reason biologists and paleontologists agree that plant life must have been the first to appear. Astronomers and cosmogonists agree that the earth must have been well along in its history before the full light from the sun reached the earth unimpeded. Chamberlain, in speaking of the declining supply of planetsimals, says, "This diminution of the supply cleared the space between the earth and the sun, and gradually brought the latter into jull function. There would, therefore, be a gradual passage from the partial dependence on the home supply of heat and light, to a complete dependence on the solar supply. There is little ground for apprehension that the inf ailing planetesimals would be seriously dangerous to the early forms of life, for, in the first place, the atmosphere must havs been then, as now, an effective cushion, checking the speed of the planetesimals, and partly dissipating them; and, in the second place, the early organisms were probably all acquatic, and were further protected by their water-covering" (pp. 114, 115.) The exact time at which the unscreened light fr m the sun reached the earth is not definitely known. The concensus of opinion, however, places it at about the same time as the introduction of life. Chamberlin, as will be noted in the last preceding quotation, has this event follow the appearance of primitive life. The Biblical chronology places it on the fourth "day," and just following the creation of the plants, but preceding the animals. It should be noted that the scientists' inability to definitely place this event does not arise through any disagreement with the Biblical chronology, but is the result of paucity of historic facts dealing with this particular feature. So far as scientific research has been able to go in this direction it has agreed in almost every detail with the sacred chronology. The fifth creative period, according to the Biblical account, witnessed the appearance of two great types of animal life — the creatures that swarm in the waters, and the fowls that "fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven." Geology has no difficulty in definitely outlining the sequence of events from this point on. The Cambrian period (and possibly the Algonkian of the pre-Cambrian) was characterized by an abundance of aquatic invertebrates. In later periods, fishes in great numbers became dominant, but these soon gave place to the amphibians and reptiles. The Jurassic period marked the appearance of birds, which in the Cretaceous became abundant and highly diversified. The similarity, if not to say the complete identity, of the Biblical and scientific chronologies relating to the matter must be apparent without further comment. According to the Biblical account the sixth "day" was characterized by the appearance of land-living creatures, culminating with man. Geological history clearly records the fact that mammals became dominant within the early Tertiary, and that man made his appearance near the beginning of the succeeding period, the Pleistocene. One rather important item of difference in the two chronologies seems to lie in the matter pertaining to the appearance of fruit-bearing trees. The geological record states that they did not have their origin until long after the Biblical account places them. It should be not d, however, that plants as a whole are placed in their prober position in the chronological record, and this item, therefore, perhaps may be considered as of secondary importance. THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 229 The following outlined comparisons of the two chronologies apparent ^ ^^ if n0t to S^ **~^ BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY CHRONOLOGY DEDUCED BY SCIENCE ' ^l! tKn0 ' Hght independ" « be^ m an immediate The appearance of the firmament The ,earth made an independent or expanse. sphere through the accretion of the nebulous material. Segregation of the land and water. Outlining of the continental masses and ocean basins. Tu„ nraa+:nn „, , ,. The appearance of vegetation soon The creation of vegetation. followed by the lowest forms of animal life. Creation of the sun, moon and stars The unscreened light of the sun reaches the earth. Creation of water-living creatures Aquatic invertebrates abundant in the Cambrian, followed by fishes. n ,. - . , First appearance of birds in the breation of fowls. Jurassic, becoming abundant in the Cretaceous. Creation of land-living creatures Appearance of mammals in the Tertiary. Creation of man. Appearance of man. It, of course, cannot be argued that the two chronologies agree in every detail. One was written more than three thousand years ago, under circumstances entirely foreign to modern advancement, and had for its purpose the religious guidance of individuals untutored in even the crudest elements of science. Of necessity, it was couched in language which could be understood by its readers, and was not intended as a scientific presentation of the facts of creation. But well within the foreground of the Biblical account the chronology stands out in its true position. It has previously been shown, in article I of this series, that the writer of the account could not have received his information from the learning of his day; that he could not have arrived at the matter through a process of reasoning, and that the chronology could not have been the result of chance. It has now been shown that the Biblical account has been vindicated in almost every detail by modern science. The only conclusion, therefore, which reasonably can be reached, is that the writer of this chro-